Gender And Gender Development Model - 959 Words

More often than not, people will define gender as the biological sex that a person was ascribed at birth and subsequently took on the role of that gender in society. Sigmund Freud initially tried to explain the development of gender using a model called the ‘Psychosocial Development Model’, which he concluded that after the protestation of the oral and anal stages, we begin a stage he refers to as the ‘genital stage’, and believes that this is when children begin to identify as either male or female. Freud believed that this lead the child to reject the parents that were of the opposite gender, and to begin to subscribe to the roles similar to those that the parent with the same sex partakes in. It’s suggested the boys will desist any amount of femininity, while girls consider themselves similar to their mother figures, and maintain a high level of femininity. The idea of ‘penis envy’ comes from a thought derived from Freud’s idea of gender development, due to a girls realization that she is biologically unequipped to have sexual intimacy with other females, specifically her mother. These ideas of gender development suggest that gender and sex are completely cohesive. Undoubtedly, there are flaws within Freud’s model of development, which include the thought that sex and gender are one in the same and rejecting the idea that homosexuality is not part of gender development, but rather seen as an abnormality. Despite the fact that this structure of gender growth has flaws, itShow MoreRelatedThe Dynamics Of Gender Formation1034 Words   |  5 Pages The Dynamics of Gender Formation Although some people believe that the sex role theory or the socialization model of gender as a process, in which we absorb instructions prescribed by the social institutions to act in the acceptable way to our biological sex, is a trivial issue, it is in fact crucial in terms of today’s concern over the gender formation. This significance is accurately noticed by Raewyn Connell, a renown sociologist who proclaimed her views in the essay â€Å"Gender in Personal Life†Read MoreGender Differences Within Social Development1747 Words   |  7 Pagesinform the reader of the gender differences through social development. Depending on a child’s gender, things such as gender identity and social acceptance have a great impact in their development. The first thing parents learned about their children before birth is the sex of the baby. This highlights the importance of sex and gender. Sex differences have long been a very important topic in psychology and in understa nding why gender differences affect social development. Social learning theoryRead MoreGender Roles And Gender Development1598 Words   |  7 PagesGender and sex are not synonymous, although they are often used interchangeably. Sex is a biological term and defined as â€Å"the categories of male or female of the sum total of biological attributes on which this distinction is based within a species† (Colman, 2009). Gender, however is a social construct and consists of gender role, gender identity and sexual orientation / preference. Gender identity is â€Å"a sense of awareness, usually beginning in infancy, continuing through childhood, and reachingRead MoreEvaluate the Influence of Biological Factors on Gender Development Including Comparison with Explanations from the Psychodynamic and Learning Approaches.874 Words   |  4 PagesThe biological explanation of gender development enforces the idea that the role of genes and hormones are the main contributors towards the development of a childs gender. Both of the parents pass down 50% of their genetic makeup to their off-spring, where the mother provides the X chromosome and the father providing X or Y chromosome. Therefore, it is the father who determines the sex of the off-spring. If the father passes on the X chromosome then the child will be female and if he passes onRead MoreTesting Kohlbergs Theory of Moral Development for Gender Bias1369 Words   |  6 PagesTesting Kohlbergs Theory of Moral Development for Gender Bias Testing Kohlbergs Theory of Moral Development for Gender Bias Introduction Building upon Piagets moral development model, which suggests that children around the ages of 10 or 11 transition from a rule-based morality to one that is more relativistic, Kohlberg concluded in his 1958 doctoral dissertation that there were at least five stages of moral development (Crain, 1985). According to Kohlberg, the maturation from one stage toRead MoreJournal Articles Summary: Group Psychotherapy1118 Words   |  4 PagesRunning Head: JOURNAL ARTICLES SUMMARY Journal Articles Summary: Group Psychotherapy Self-disclosure in Psychotherapy Supervisors: Gender Differences This journal article discusses the issue of self-disclosure in psychotherapy, which is greatly affected by the gender differences. The relationship between the supervisors and the trainees is very much dependent upon the relation of the two. Sometimes they become so familiar with each other that they get involve in sexual relationships, which isRead MoreThe Article Gender Role Models896 Words   |  4 PagesThe article Gender Role Models ... who needs ‘em?! By Stephen Hicks encouraged me to reflect on my childhood gender roles as well as how I portray my gender roles today. After learning about the socialization theory I realize my parents were traditional towards gender roles and have incorporated multiple theories of human growth and development into my gender development. I have also learned how my gender roles have gradually transformed since I was a child. Therefore, this article has brought toRead MoreStudy questions Essay1333 Words   |  6 PagesAnthr 110 Gender, Age and Culture Instructor: Franà §ois Larose Study Questions Fall 2012 Instructions: In preparation for the exams, here is a list of study questions for each chapter. What you need to know from the text is covered in these questions. For all these chapters, you need to be familiar with the definitions (technical terms) highlighted in the text. Also, while there will be no direct questions on the grey boxes in these chapters, I strongly suggest you read them. They provideRead MorePursuing A Master s Student Affairs1412 Words   |  6 Pagesas an undergraduate student. While in undergraduate, I was involved with Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Campus Activities Board Directors, Student Support Services, Student Government Association, Residential Housing, and the Department of Student Developments. Pursuing a Master’s degree has always been an interest of mines, but I never knew what degree to pursue. While working as a student worker for the department of student activities, I gained a love for the college campus environment. This loveRead MoreGender Roles Of Early Childhood Development932 Words   |  4 PagesGender Roles in Early Childhood Development In a society filled with gender stereotypes, children often adopt gender roles as they move from childhood to adolescence because of the many factors that influence their views to the point they will deny certain roles because it does not fit the gender bias. During the early years, boys and girls will usually be drawn towards gender specific activities. Playing house for example, they little boy will imitate going to work, while the little girl will imitate

Project Risk Management Plan - 1382 Words

Project Risk Management Plan PM/584 July 14, 2014 Project Risk Management Plan The purpose of the risk management plan is to identify any event or condition that may occur which could have a positive or negative affect on the project. Risks management is the process of identifying, assessing, responding to, monitoring, and reporting risks. The Risks Management Plan will define how risks associated with the Baderman Island Casino Hotel project will be identified, analyzed, and managed. The plan will outline how risks management activities will be performed, recorded, and monitored throughout the project. The plan will also provide a template and practices for recording and prioritizing risks. The risks†¦show more content†¦The Tenney @ Night GM Amberly Wendolski, The Baderman Island Cafà © Perla Musgraves, Mayor of Kelsey Naoma Kinoshita, Sr. Botanist, William C. Martin Botanical Gardens Bao Weyrauch, CPA, Finance Manager, Boardman Management Group Ashly Yeamas, Manager Pepicello Fairways Dagmar Sephus, President Kelsey Ferry Company Cedrick McBroome, Director of Business Development, Patten-Fuller Community Hospital Tony Gonyer, Warden of Kelsey Prison Craig McClary, Ph.D, Principal, Kelsey High School A facilitator was appointed to conduct the brainstorming workshop and to review the procurement. The selected brainstorming team was briefed on the purpose of the workshop and the outcomes that were desired (Cooper, Grey, Raymond, Walker, 2005). Risk were identified in the risk brainstorming workshop, then ranked, and prioritized. Each risk was assessed and given a qualitative and quantitative measurements to determine where they rank in priority, with one being the highest risk and seven being the lowest risk (see appendix B). Project Risks Monitoring: Watch Lists During a construction project such as the Baderman Island Casino-Hotel all risks must be monitored daily to ensure the impact is minimal. To monitor the project risks a watch lists has been developed. TheShow MoreRelatedA Project Risk Management Plan1546 Words   |  7 Pages A risk is an event or condition that, if it occurs, could have a positive or negative effect on a project’s objectives. A project risk is an event which have a positive and negative impact on a project objectives. Risk Management is the process of identifying, assessing, responding to, monitoring, and reporting risks. A Project risk management plan is critical in identifying, monitoring and reporting risks. This Risk Management Plan defines how risks associated with ten story-building projectRead MoreProject Risk Management Plan2746 Words   |  11 Pagesthe project manager successful and effectively manage the Project Integra that will influence the integration between American Bank of Indiana (ABI) and First American Financial Service Group (FAFS). A successful Project Manager must simultaneously manage the four basic elements of a project: resources, time, money, and most important, scope. To excel at this position an individual must have communication and interpersonal skills, attention to detail, and strong analytical skills. The Project ManagerRead MoreAbi Project Risk Management Plan3254 Words   |  14 PagesRunning head: ABI PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN ABI Project Risk Management Plan Your Name Here University of Phoenix ABI Project Risk Management Plan The recent acquisition of the ABI company by FAFS mean that ABI needs to change many of their internal processes to coordinate and be accessible by both entities. The union of these banking companies means a merging of databases and software applications. The challenge is to implement the fusion of these companies in a timely cost efficientRead MoreIs3110 Project: Risk Management Plan1805 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction a. Scope b. Assign to departments c. Risk Matrix d. Risk mitigation plan e. Impact Analysis II. (BIA) f. Departments g. Business Impact h. Costs Analysis III. Recommendations (BIA) i. Business Impact Analysis Results j. Maximum Acceptable Outage IV. (DLIS) Business Continuity Plan a. Purpose b. Scope c. Plan Objectives d. Disaster definition e. Recovery teams f. Read MoreRisk Management Plan the Silver Fiddle Construction Company Project: Czopeks Dream Home Project3559 Words   |  15 PagesUnit 5 Assignment 1 – Course Project: Risk Management Plan The Silver Fiddle Construction Company Project: Czopeks Dream Home Project Matthew Daley 16 February 2014 Capella University Professor Haziel Matias MBA6233 – Assessing and Mitigating Risk Section 101 Introduction: Silver Fiddle Construction Company specializes in building high quality, customized homes in Grand Junction, Colorado. Silver Fiddle Construction Company has been contracted to build a 2,500-square foot, 2 ½-bath 3-bedroomRead MoreBusiness Analysis : Rhubarb Bakers1326 Words   |  6 Pagesoffer the service of the team that is friendly and knowledgable. Management summary: Team Expertise John Callum (Head chef) Pastry chef for more than 25 years at Langham hotel, Auckland Navjot kaur ( Project manager) 15 years of experience in hospitality and expert in accounting and finance Parmeet kaur (HRM and consultant) Human Resource Manager(HRM) with an exerience of 15 years as HR consultant and Risk management Expert. 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Risk Is Not A Problem Risk1374 Words   |  6 PagesAnalyze the Concept of Risk Risk is not a problem; risk is an issue that could possibly develop and affect the outcome of a project (Risk Management Plan, 1997). The cost of the project, quality, scope, and schedule could all be affected if a risk surfaces. This does not necessarily mean that the risk is negative; risks can create a positive opportunity (Project Management Institute, 2013). For example the vendor informs us that the specified wood flooring is no longer available; as a result

Displaced traditional penal practice Free Essays

To what extent has actuarial Justice displaced traditional penal practice In contemporary societies? The displacement of traditional methods of penal practice within contemporary societies in favor of the more risk orientated model of actuarial justice has proved a contentious issue amongst academic and political discourse and still remains an arena of vigorous debate. The discussion surrounding the progressive area of actuarial Justice may be seen to provide opposing arguments of equal weight and pertinence within modern structures of national criminal Justice systems throughout the globe; however the construction and application f this theoretical model of criminal Justice may differ amongst societies and have heterogeneous effects In combination with differential cultural, economic and Ideological conditions. The concept and practice of actuarial Justice will first be considered and the way it subsequently departs from more traditional procedures of penal practice, primarily analyzing western society, with a particular focus upon the British model of criminal Justice. We will write a custom essay sample on Displaced traditional penal practice or any similar topic only for you Order Now The arguments suggesting that contemporary isosceles are Indeed transposing conventional offender) towards an acknowledgment of potential risky and dangerous populations as a whole ND the consequential strategies of management will subsequently be discussed. Case representations of the way in which differential executions of the same model of actuarial Justice may vary between societies and the disparate consequences they deliver will additionally be considered to highlight the divergent viewpoints and debates encompassing actuarial Justice. Drawing upon the various outcomes actuarial Justice may be argued to impose, with specific reference to the implementation of the indeterminate sentence for public protection (IPP), the debate accentuating the harms and inequalities which are promoted within reticular models of actuarial Justice and thus the argument that on the whole many traditional methods have not been displaced in favor of this new risk penology shall be assessed. The concept of actuarial Justice is the process whereby future threats and risks posed by offenders to society are calculated and as such play a dominant role in contributing to prevention techniques and policing which endeavourer to respond to such perceived risk accordingly. Actuarial Justice assumes that deviance within society is habitual and will remain as normalization, viewed as directly resultant of modern society. By this standard, it adopts the position of crime prevention through risk assessment, with a focus upon larger populations deemed dangerous to society opposed to the established approach of criminal Justice which places the individual and their specific offence as preeminent. It is through the depart of individualistic to generalization which has shaped the management techniques associated with actuarial Justice. It can be argued that this model of Justice is consequently unconcerned with the reformation of offenders, instead seeks to filter particular groups through thaws within the Justice system dependent upon their risk profile. As such it is possible to deduce that actuarial Justice is primarily concerned with the existing and future threat posed upon society by offenders, making the paramount concern crime prevention and constraining lawbreaking activity contrary to providing a suitable response and the comprehension factors contributing to individual criminality. The debate and evidence promoting the implication that actuarial Justice is indeed displacing traditional penal methods is one which is widely and comprehensively presented within both academic and political discourse. Giddiness (1994) proffers the suggestion that societies are to a greater extent preoccupied with the notion of future risk, which may be seen as a by-product of the increased threat posed within the post modern world. Giddiness and Beck (date) refer to this focus upon sustained safety and prevention of future threat the ‘risk society, in which social allegiance to the nation state is dissolved marked by a lack of reverence in traditional institutions and an ascendancy of global forces. Reflexive modernization, described as the possibility of a creative (self-)destruction for an entire epoch: that of industrial society. The ‘subject’ of this creative destruction is not the revolution, not the crisis, but the victory of Western modernization’ (Beck, date, pop). Concept which undercuts the formations of, for example, class, gender and occupation within the social hierarchy, imposing self-confrontation with the consequences of risk society which may no longer be managed under the practices of industrial societies ‘institutionalized standards’. The paradigm presented by risk society therefore is the split from the protection f the nation state to one of constructing individuals as responsible for their own safety and risk management. The term ‘advanced liberal’ is deployed by Rose (1996) to further emphasis this social shift, away from the explicit power of the nation state to one which governance is achieved ‘at arm’s length’, promoting greater independence and need for increased individual responsibilities. This sporadic governance of society is one which is still primarily concerned with the notion of risk and the probability of its subsequent effect, exposing the aggregate populations which are identified as presenting danger society. The focus shifted to an increased managerial approach to crime, aimed at reducing the rate of potential offences and eliminating the presence of ‘carcinogenic situations’ (Garland, 1996). This is argued to have marked a divergence from rehabilitative responses targeted at individual offenders, to the generalizes management to particular sections of the population (Simon and Feely, 1992). No longer viewing offenders in a manner akin traditional criminal Justice responses, understanding their motives and experiences consequently in need of reformation and treatment but as universal group of potential harm. How to cite Displaced traditional penal practice, Papers

Spartan Women free essay sample

Spartan Women And Their Role in Society Compared to Athenian Women Spartan Women were definitely more dominant in society in comparison to their Athenian Sisters. Spartan women had the freedom of equality in their society but were not allowed to vote and they had a reputation for boldness and licentiousness that other Greeks found unseemly. The women of Sparta were known for their education, athleticism, producing children, and their natural beauty. Unfortunately, there is no real historical documentation that spells out the ways of the women of Sparta. Historians rely on the accounts of Archaic Greek (7th century) poets and other subsequent Greek historians and literary figures to piece together the history, and sometimes the mythology, of the lives and culture of Spartan women. Education was a huge part of a Spartans woman’s life and one of the most recognised differences, which made the Spartan women quite diverse compared to the rest of the women living in different cities, especially Athenian women. Athenian women participated in domestic arts such as spinning and weaving. Spartan women were taught reading and writing and such tasks were relegated to the Helots or Perioeci. A girls education was equally as brutal as the mens. Teaching a woman to read and write? What a terrible thing to do! It’s like feeding a vile snake on more poison. -A Menander’s (an Athenian) reaction to a Spartan women’s education. Spartan girls from the age of 7 were entitled to an education. This education however was physical more so than academic, but nevertheless must have been extremely important to Sparta as they are the only Greeks to of instituted it as state policy. The girls attended their own sisterhood barracks where they were taught gymnastics, wrestling and survival skills. It is said that the girls participated in the same activities as the boys which included many events such as javelin, discus, foot races, and staged battles. In many such events Spartan women usually competed naked in the presence of their male counterparts, and were respected for their athletic feats. Plutarch mentions nude rituals witnessed by young men. Athleticism was also seen as a guarantee that the strong and fit Spartan women would reproduce, and when they bore children, those children would be strong warriors in the making. Marriage for a Spartan woman was an almost non-ceremonial event. During the marriage ceremony, the bride wore a white robe, a veil, and jewellery given to her by her husband’s family. The ceremony usually took place in the groom’s tent and the festivities lasted seven days. If a woman was wealthy enough she could have even had a husband for each house she maintained. The night before the ceremony an abnormal tradition was carried out, the woman was abducted in the night by her suitor, her head was shaved, and she was made to wear mens clothing and lie on a straw pallet in the dark. From there on she would meet with her husband for almost entirely procreative reasons. If she was formerly a girl, she became a woman through marriage and her childhood toys were taken and dedicated to a goddess. Any Spartan man could abduct a wife, which led to a system of polyandry (many husbands, one wife or vice versa) in Sparta. Some arranged marriages were even chosen on the women’s athletic ability. Before marrying, a couple was required to wrestle in public to show their compatibility. If compatible the groom’s father would agree to the marriage, and twelve months after this selection the couple would marry. Spartan women could also take another husband if their first had been away at war for too long, which Plutarch recorded in his writings: When king Leonidas left to fight the Persians he advised his wife and presumably other likely widows: To marry good men and bear good children. (The Ancient World, 1997, p104) While there is no proof one way or another, it seems likely that Spartan marriages were arranged by the parents with little thought for the preferences of the prospective bride or groom, but if Spartan women had no say in the choice of husband they certainly had power and status in every other respect. Not every women in Sparta became married, One group of women existed who were unusually free to go out and about as they pleased, they were known as the Hetairai. These women were trained to become companions for men. They were usually well educated and pretty. Usually they were invited to men’s dinner parties to join in with the discussions and to play music to the guests. (Ancient Greece, 1992, p61) Spartan women usually married when they were eighteen and men usually got married in their mid-thirties, much later than the Greeks. Presumably this was to guarantee healthier and stronger babies rather than a large number, but it meant that ost girls were emotionally stronger when they married. In any event other Greeks clearly believed that Spartan women had far too much power for the good of the state. Plutarch wrote that â€Å"the men of Sparta always obeyed their wives. † Aristotle was even more critical of the influence women had in politics arguing that it was contr ibuting to the downfall of the country. Women did not have a vote in the assembly but seem to have had a lot of influence behind the scene. Womens roles in Sparta were not limited to marriage and procreation. They could own and control their own property and did in fact own more than a third of the land in Sparta. They could dispose of their land as they wished. A woman was expected in times of war to be fierce and overtake her husbands property, and to guard it against invaders and revolts until her husband returned; hence many Spartan women are depicted as warriors. Land ownership for Athenian women was certainly unheard of. Women’s tunics were worn in such a way as to give them a little more freedom of movement and the opportunity to reveal a little leg and thigh if they so desired and went anywhere in their city as they pleased. Spartan women were forbidden to wear any kind of makeup or enhancements. Athenian women wore heavy, concealing clothes and were rarely seen outside the house. The end of the fourth and the beginning of the fifth centuries BC saw a decline in the number of men relative to women. If boys left home for good at age 7 and husbands and fathers spent the greater part of their life in military training with other men, the impact of all this on the lives of women must have been enormous. Daughters inherited along with sons. Unfortunately, when we get down to the particulars there are some gaps in our knowledge. Attempts were made to get rid of the practice of needing a dowry to get married. It is possible that endeavours by fathers to get around the law have led to considerable confusion in our eyes as to what was a gift and what was a dowry. Daughters may have inherited half of what a son inherited; it is also possible that if you combine dowry with inheritance they ended up with a full share of the estate. Spartan and Athenian women lived much of their lives far removed from the men of their societies. Athenian men spent time away discussing politics and philosophy, but when they went home they expected obedience from their wives and no Athenian citizen would ever admit to taking advice from a woman. Spartan men were absent even more; while they were the only ones who held official office everyone acknowledged the influence women had in decision making. Spartan women may have gained freedom from male domination, but they were even less likely to get any emotional support from their marriages. The men of Athens had to be the boss in public, but there was no such social requirement in the home behind closed doors. The overt power of the husband was replaced in Sparta by an unspoken but very real control by the state. Spartan women remained breeding machines whose purpose was to produce the male soldiers the state needed to defend itself against revolt by the Helots. If babies were seen as unfit when examined at birth they were abandoned on Mt Taygetos and left to die. Mother love was replaced by a mother’s pride in her son’s bravery in battle and disgust with any sign of cowardice. Come home with your shield or upon it† was reputed to be the advice one woman gave her son as he went off to war. She may well have been speaking on behalf of all Spartan women. Another freedom that Spartan women had over other Greek women was their ability to fraternize in public with Spartan men. Along with exercising with the opposite sex came the ability to trade conversat ion and political witticisms with them. In fact, Spartan women were notoriously known for their razor-sharp wit and outspoken natures. This freedom turned heads amongst the other Greeks, and they, of course, disapproved greatly. But, if the physical health of a Spartan woman was seen as vital to her ability to produce strong Spartan boys, then her mental and intellectual might have been seen as just as important. When Sparta deteriorated in the 4th century B. C. , their fall from grace was blamed in part on the inclusion of their women in public life, their ability to own land, and thus their supposed ability to exert a certain amount of power over their men. It seems that the general consensus was, if you gave a Greek woman an inch, she would take a mile. Social and economic status was restricted within the Spartan women’s community. This status was only of importance in issues such as marriage, as a Spartan woman could only marry within the Spartan community as well as within their own social and economic status. The jobs Spartan women were eligible for also depended on their economic/social status. It was unusual for well born women to have a job outside of the house, except some did become priestesses in the temples, whilst the lower born women usually became midwives, shopkeepers, dancers or musicians. The worship of Artemis was common throughout the Greek world; only in Sparta was a warrior spirit and sense of equality allowed to flourish among the upper-class Spartan men and women. Plutarchs Moralia contains a collection of Sayings of Spartan Women, including a laconic quip attributed to Queen Gorgo (wife of Leonidas 1): when asked by a woman from Attica why Spartan women were the only women in the world who could rule men, she replied Because we are the only women who are mothers of men.

The Importance of Training and Development in Contemporary Organizations

Introduction Business enterprises and organizations at large rely on human resource in their operations. To a large extent, the success of a given organization is determined by the skills and commitment of the human resource. Hatcher (17) points out that the effectiveness of human resource is dependent on a number of factors. One of them is the level of skills possessed by employees in a company. The ever changing business environment in contemporary society requires a workforce to have skills equal to the tasks assigned to them.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Importance of Training and Development in Contemporary Organization specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The level of skills determines the competitiveness of the organization in the local and global market. For this reason, Hatcher (23) is of the view that it is important to put in place training and development programs with regards to the labor force in a give organization. The opinions of such scholars help to affirm the hypothesis that human resource development is vital for the success of a given business organization in contemporary society. The current paper is written against the aforementioned hypothesis. Consequently, the author seeks to outline the various benefits of training and development in a contemporary business organization. According to Wilson (74), one can view the benefits or importance of training and development from two perspectives. For example, there are those benefits that accrue to the employee of the organization. The other category includes those benefits that are associated with the employer. Both of these benefits are discussed in detail in this paper. To achieve the objective of this paper, the author relies on various books on human resource and a number of peer reviewed articles published in journals in the field of human resource. Introduction to Training and Development in a Business Organizatio n Salvi (para. 1) looks at training from an academic angle. Salvi suggests that training is an avenue through which personnel learn new skills that build on their existing knowledge. Training and development has a number of objectives. The main objective is to improve the efficiency of employees at their place of work. To this end, the process of training seeks to enhance the skills of an individual. Through this process of skill improvement, the much desired efficiency at the work place is realized. On its part, development is considered as an avenue through which an organization employs some form of capacity building to enhance its performance in the market (Salvi para. 2). There are a number of elements underlying this aspect of development in a company. Some of the elements include the prevailing business environment and the current state of a company. From these perspectives, the aspect of development (with regards to both the organization and the employee) is made evident. Sal vi (para. 3) is of the opinion that training and development go hand in hand, especially when it comes to human resource management. Salvi believes that training is an avenue through which skills can be developed.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Importance of Training and Development Overview Lipman (para. 1) is of the opinion that many companies are not providing enough training and development to their staff. The trend has increased in recent years. Lipman (para. 2) makes reference to a study published in the Harvard Business to argue out this point. In this study, a large number of participants cited development dissatisfaction as the reason behind their exit from companies. From the study cited by Lipman, it is evident that members of staff prefer to work in an environment where their skills can be continuously developed. From the discourse above, it is apparent that training and development remains a key element in the overall management of a company. In this section, some of the benefits of training and development are discussed to determine the veracity of the hypothesis developed for this study. Lipman (para. 4) and Rothwell (127) illustrate some of these benefits. The sentiments of these two scholars (Lipman and Rothwell) are driven by the need to improve human resource management in today’s business organization. Identifying and Addressing Weaknesses among Employees According to Rothwell (73), all the employees working in a given organization have a number of shortcomings. The inefficiencies characterizing many business organizations arise from the individual shortcomings of the employees. Consequently, Rothwell (73) argues that it is only through training and development that these weaknesses are identified and dealt with. Managers in companies with an established program of training employees can easily identify employees with we aknesses that affect their performance. As a result of this, the levels of skills among employees in a given business entity are greatly enhanced. Companies that do not address the shortcomings of their employees tend to rely more on the skills of a few individual members of staff (Wilson 111). A training program creates uniformity with regards to skill distribution in a particular company. The increased pool of skilled employees in a company reduces the need to rely on particular members of staff to perform certain tasks. In this regard, training and development ensures that a company has a reliable workforce. Improved Performance among Employees and Training and Development Kesler (11) examines the factors that improve the performance of a company’s workforce. Kesler points out access to information as a key determinant of performance among employees. In light of this, training and development ensures that individual employees have access to updated information regarding a number of procedures in their practice. For examples, a hospital may organize a conference for a team of specialists in the workforce to help them learn about new developments in their field. Workers who are well informed are able to perform their tasks better and more efficiently compared to those who are not adequately informed. The training, as a result, improves the employees overall performance.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Importance of Training and Development in Contemporary Organization specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More To some extent, performance is tied to individual employee’s level of confidence. Rothwell (67) is of the opinion that individuals with a low self-esteem perform poorly in their work. A training and development program helps to identify such employees to boost their levels of confidence. When their confidence levels are dealt with, the employees are capable of improving thei r performance. Consequently, the overall efficiency of a company is improved. Employee Satisfaction and Training and Development A training and development program helps to increase employee satisfaction in the organization. According to Lipman (para. 2), there is an emerging trend in American companies where members of staff opt to leave companies that lack a training and development mechanism. According to Hamel (116), individuals are highly satisfied when their levels of skills are improved. Members of staff enhance the achievement of an organization’s core objectives when they feel a sense of belonging in the company. The sense of belonging can be achieved through a training and development program in the company (Hamel 116). Increased Productivity and Training and Development As aforementioned, training and development helps to increase employees’ skills and knowledge (Hatcher 23). The implication is that a workforce with improved skills and access to updated info rmation is more efficient than a workforce that lacks the two. In addition, increased levels of skills help to reduce the time taken to perform a given task. As such, the productivity levels in a given company are significantly improved. Quality Improvement and Training and Development According to Ulrich and Reeds (294), training and development introduces the workforce to updated methods of service delivery. It follows that the overall quality of service delivery in a company is tied to the availability of information on best practices. To this end, a company’s training and development program ensures that the quality of goods and services produced remains high. Reducing Operational Costs and Training and Development Many companies are keen on ensuring that their operational costs are minimized (Lipman para. 7). Consequently, it is important to ensure that the resources available to the company are optimally utilized. A training and development program helps employees to ac quire skills that are useful in reducing wastage in the company. Conclusion From the arguments made in this paper, it is evidently clear that training and development is a key pillar in business and human resource management. Based on the findings made, the author of this paper concludes that all organizations should have a training and development program for the employees to enhance the overall performance of the company.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Works Cited Hamel, George. Leading the Revolution, Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2000. Print. Hatcher, Tim. Ethics and HRD: A New Approach Leading to Responsible Organizations, Kentucky: Basic Books, 2002. Print. Kesler, Gregory. â€Å"Why the Leadership Bench Never Gets Deeper: Ten Insights about Executive Talent Development.† HR Planning Society Journal 25.1 (2002): 1-28. Print. Lipman, Victor 2013. Why Employee Training is Important, Neglected can Cost You Talent. Web. Rothwell, Williams. Effective Succession Planning, New York: AMACOM, 2001. Print. Salvi, Siddheshwar. n.d. What is Training and Development?. n.d. Web. Ulrich, David and Beatty Reeds. â€Å"From Partners to Players: Extending the HR Playing Field.† Human Resource Management 40.4 (2001): 293-308. Print. Wilson, John. Human Resource Development: Learning and Training for Individuals and organization, London: Kogan Page Publishers, 2005. Print. This essay on The Importance of Training and Development in Contemporary Organization was written and submitted by user Myah Walker to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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Mental Health Illness and Stigma Literature Review

Mental Health Illness and Stigma Literature Review 1. Introduction 1.1 Mental illness and stigma Inequalities in health services delivery and utilization for people with mental illness has been widely documented.1 Subsequently this results in poorer outcomes for this population in regard to general health, such as circulatory diseases, mortality from natural causes, and access to interventions .2-4 Several issues have been identified as contributing to these disparities in health service access and delivery, including stigma.5-6Stigma associated with mental illness has been defined as negative attitudes formed on the basis of prejudice or misinformation that are triggered by markers of illness.1-5Illness markers include atypical behaviours, the types of medication prescribed and noticeable medication related adverse effects.5-7These markers allow for the continuation of stigma concerning people with mental illness, but they also allow community pharmacists to identify patients with a broad range of what are often unaddressed health related needs.1 Behavioural and mental disorder s are estimated to account for 12% of the global burden of diseases. Mental health related medications account for >10% of all medications prescribed by general medical practitioners8, therefore, it is an inescapable fact that community pharmacists must interact with patients suffering from mental health problems.9 Mental illness is relevant to practising pharmacists who can play vital roles in the treatment of patients with mental illness.10 Throughout the latter half of the previous century, the diagnosis and pharmacological treatment of mental illness improved radically.9 1990-2000 was proclaimed the Decade of the Brain. to promote the study of disorders of the brain, including mental illnesses.11 Despite these advances, the stigma associated with mental illness remains a compelling negative feature in society.10 Unfortunately health care professionals, including pharmacists are not invulnerable to such harmful attitudes.9 Pharmacists attitudes toward mental illness and the menta lly ill are extremely important because they can affect their professional interactions and clinical decisions.12-13 In addition, they could ultimately affect the delivery of pharmaceutical care which has been defined as the pharmacist assuming the responsibility for positive patient outcomes.14 Activities like medication counselling and monitoring of therapy have been documented to improve both satisfaction and adherence to drug therapy in patients with mental illness.15 It has been pointed out that pharmacists must become more involved in such activities for patients with mental illness.9 1.2 Optimising the use of medications for mental illness Community care offers many advantages over institutional care; however, it can place extra demands on family, friends and primary health care practitioners.16 Health professionals have identified people with mental illness as the most challenging patients to manage.8 The quality and accessibility of community care for people with mental illness needs to be improved.17 The appropriate use of medicines plays an imperative role in the effective management of mental illness, nonetheless, there is evidence that psychotropic medicines are often used inappropriately.18-19 Elderly people are especially susceptible to the effects of psychotropic medicines, and may experience adverse effects such as cardio toxicity, confusion and unwanted sedation .8 Contributing factors to the high rates of non-compliance to psychotropic medicines include, psychosocial problems, the emergence of side effects, and the delayed onset of action of anti-depressant medication.20-21 Medical co-morbidity is also comm on, and polypharmacy increases the risk of medication misuse and drug-drug interactions.22 The World Health Organisation (WHO) has indicated that the inclusion of pharmacists as active members of the health care team can improve psychotropic medication use.23 The benefits of dynamically engaging mental health service users in their own management is supported by both clinical experience and research evidence.24 A systemic review of the role of pharmacists in mental health care, published in 2003, concluded that pharmacists can bring about improvements in the safe and effective use of psychiatric medicines.23 The wide range of pharmaceutical services provided by community pharmacists are potentially well suited to assisting patients and prescribers optimise the use of medications for mental illness.8 2. Method 2.1 Literature search strategy Pubmed (1965-March 2010), International Pharmaceutical Abstracts (1970-March 2010), Embase (1974-March 2010), Cinahl (1981-March 2010) and Psychinfo (1972-March 2010) were searched using text words and MeSH headings including: community pharmacist.s, pharmacist.s, pharmaceutical care, pharmaceutical services, mental illness, mental disorders, stigma and mental illness, mentally ill persons, depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, psychotic disorders, psychotropic drugs, antidepressive agents, benzodiazepines, anxiety agents and antipsychotic agents. ~550 abstracts were read. Reference lists of retrieved articles were checked for any additional relevant published material. Exclusion criteria included articles not published in English, no service provided by pharmacists, not relevant to mental illness, and studies and surveys that were carried out to evaluate pharmacist.s services in hospital inpatient or acute care settings. The literature search identified 88 papers that reporte d or discussed community pharmacist.s involvement in the care of patients with mental illness. 2.2 Inclusion criteria and review procedure For section 3.1 of the discussion, studies and surveys conducted into the attitudes of community pharmacists toward mental illness and the impact of stigma were considered. The literature review procedure for section 3.2 of the discussion, which deals with optimising the use of medication for mental illness, differed from that of 3.1, as studies without control groups, results of postal surveys and qualitative interviews were excluded. Studies with a parallel control group that reported the provision of services by community pharmacists in community and residential aged care facilities were considered. This included trials specifically conducted for individuals with a mental illness, and studies of medication reviews and education initiatives to optimise the use of medication for mental illness. Papers that reported pharmacist.s interventions in nursing homes were included, because community pharmacists frequently provide services to nursing homes. Studies of pharmacist.s activities as part of multi-disciplinary teams were also included. The literature search identified 57 papers that reported or discussed community pharmacy services to optimise the use of medications for mental illness. 3. Discussion 3.1 Mental illness and stigma While the views of the public9 and of certain health care professionals25 and health care students26-28 toward mental illness have been well documented over the years, there are limited numbers of investigations accessing community pharmacists and pharmacy student.s attitudes. Crimson et al.12 examined the attitudes of 250 baccalaureate pharmacy students toward mental illness, Phokeo et al.29 studied the outlook of 283 community pharmacists toward users of psychiatric medication, Cates et al.9 detailed the attitudes of community pharmacists toward both mental illness and the provision of pharmaceutical care to patients with mental illness, and Black et al.1 studied the satisfaction that patients with mental illness have with services provided by community pharmacists. 3.1.1 Community pharmacist.s attitudes toward patients with mental illness In general, pharmacists express positive, unprejudiced attitudes toward mental illness,1, 9, 29, 30 and overall they show encouraging attitudes toward the provision of pharmaceutical care.9 Phokeo et al.29 reported that pharmacists feel uncomfortable inquiring about a patient.s use of psychiatric medication and discussing symptoms of mental illness compared to the medication and symptoms associated with cardiovascular problems. Pharmacists also monitor patients with mental disorders for compliance and adverse effects less frequently than patients with cardiovascular problems. Crimson et al.12 found an association between a personal or family history of mental illness and attitudes of pharmacists toward mental illness. Age and years in practice are also connected with attitudes toward providing pharmaceutical care to patients with mental illness. The older and more experienced pharmacists have more encouraging responses than their counterparts.9Pharmacists are of the opinion, however, that patients with mental illness do not receive adequate information about their medication from their physicians. These patients may also receive less attention from pharmacists compared to medically ill patients, which raises concerns that their drug-related needs are not being met.29 3.1.2 Patient.s attitudes toward community pharmacists Consumers of mental health services generally have a positive perception of community pharmacists and their services, however, expectations are limited to standard pharmacy services, like providing patients with information about their medication and resolving prescription issues when dispensing medications.29 The majority of patients feel at ease while discussing their psychotropic medication and related illnesses with pharmacists.31 Clinically orientated services like working collaboratively with other health care providers, making dosing or treatment recommendations, monitoring response to treatment, and addressing the individuals physical and mental health needs have been found to be unavailable to patients.32 Patients with mental health problems, expectations of community pharmacists are low, and do not match the services that they can provide.33 Although stigma has been perceived to be similar with other health care professional, Black et al.1 revealed that 25% of patients with mental illness have experienced stigma at community pharmacies. 3.1.3 Substance misuse The prevalence of coexisting substance misuse and mental illness (dual diagnosis) has increased over the past decade, and the indications are that it will continue to do so.15 A patient with both a mental illness and a substance misuse problem can face prejudice and stigma from health care professionals, who might question the capacity of dually diagnosed individuals to respond to care.34 A Canadian survey into the attitudes of community pharmacist.s toward mental illness showed that only 55% of respondents agreed that substance misuse is a mental health problem. This finding reflects the perception that addiction represents poor self control or is a self inflicted problem.29 Over recent years, the capacity to intervene pharmacologically in substance misuse has increased greatly, pharmacotherapy is now available for opiate, alcohol and nicotine misuse.19 Some psychiatric patients with comorbid substance abuse achieve stabilisation rapidly, furthermore, severe mental illness does not necessarily predict worse outcomes.35 Socio-economic and emotional aspects are the main challenges to recovery, and case management in the context of integrated community and residential services has been shown to increase medication compliance over time.36 The contribution that community pharmacists have in the management of substance abuse has been well documented.37 Most general psychiatrists are only in the position to give patients 5-10 minutes of brief advise or intervention regarding a substance misuse problem,38 whereas community pharmacist.s are easily accessible to the public and are in a central position to provide specific advice about substance misuse.37 Community pharmacists currently provide dispensing services to drug addicts,38 and they are also the first point of contact for people misusing substances who are not in touch with the substance misuse services.39 3.1.4 Overcoming the barriers created by stigma Studies have indicated that patients prefer to go to the same pharmacy for their medication and other pharmacy needs and a significant number of patients favour to interact with the same pharmacist, which suggests that the relationship they have with their pharmacist plays an imperative role in their health and well being.1 A lack of privacy from failure to use an available private counselling room in the pharmacy contributes to patients feelings of discomfort regarding talking about their medication and their illness.31 Pharmacists are trained to educate and support patients regarding psychotropic medications, including how a drug works, monitoring for treatment response and adverse effects, and guiding patients through the process of stopping treatment, however, there are inconsistencies in the provision of these services.29 The potential for discrimination and stigma in community pharmacies has been well documented and initiatives to improve exposure of pharmacists to persons with mental illnesses in practice and in training has been suggested.23, 29 Pharmacists experience an increased level of discomfort in this therapeutic area as they receive inadequate undergraduate training in mental health.9 Adequate training in mental health is needed to improve the professional interactions of community pharmacists toward users of psychiatric medication.1 3.2 Optimising the use of medications for mental illness Community pharmacists are one of the primary health care providers in the community and have the opportunity to influence patient.s perception of their mental illness. Patients are far less likely to adhere to medications for mental health problems outside the hospital setting. Community pharmacists can significantly contribute to optimising medication use in mental illness through counselling, 40-42 patient education and treatment monitoring, 43-36 medication review services, 30, 47-49 pharmacotherapy meetings with general medical practitioners, 50-54 delivering services to community mental health centres and outpatient clinics,55-57 improving the transfer of information between health care settings,58-60 and being active members of community mental health teams.61-63 3.2.1 Counselling services In the Netherlands, three studies were carried out to highlight the impact of community pharmacist.s medication counselling sessions for people commencing non-tricyclic antidepressant therapy.40, 42 Intervention patients participated in three consecutive counselling sessions which lasted between 10 and 20 minutes each. They also received a take-home video that reiterated the importance of adherence. Throughout the counselling session, pharmacists informed patients about the appropriate use of their medications, which included, providing information about the benefits of taking the medication, informing patients about potential side effects, informing patients about the onset of action for antidepressant medication and explaining the crucial importance of taking their medication on a daily basis. Medication compliance was measured using an electronic pill container that recorded the time and frequency that the cover was opened.41 At the three month follow up the intervention patients had significantly more positive attitudes compared to the controls.40 At six months greater medication compliance was observed with the intervention patients that remained in the study25 55, also apparent improvements in symptoms were noted.41 Research on adherence shows that the patient.s knowledge and beliefs about the benefits of adhering to their medication regime plays a critical role in compliance.64 Non-adherence is not an irrational act but rather a product of poor communication.65 Patient compliance to health care recommendations is more likely when communication is optimal.66 The results of these studies indicated improvements in depressive symptoms,41 more positive attitudes,40 and better compliance to their medication.42 A limitation of this method was that the same pharmacist provided counselling services to both the intervention and the control group. As the intervention studied was multifactorial, it is inconclusive whether the three face-to-face counselling sessions or the take home video were primarily responsible for changes in drug attitude, adherence and the symptom scores.40-42 3.2.2 Patient education and treatment monitoring Four studies have reported results from pharmacist conducted patient education and treatment monitoring services for people prescribed antidepressant medications in the United States.43-46 These services involved the pharmacist taking a medication history, providing information about the prescribed antidepressant medications, and conducting telephone and face-to-face follow-ups. In two of the investigations, one of which was controled43 and the other randomised controlled, 62 medication adherence was calculated by reviewing prescription dispensing data, and reported using an intention-to-treat analysis. Both studies also demonstrated that involvement of the pharmacist was associated with a decrease in the number of visits to other primary health care providers; however, statistical significance was only achieved in one of the studies. Improved adherence to antidepressant medication was reported in both studies, 43-44 although patient satisfaction was only evident in one.44 The other two studies were randomised controlled.45-46 One of the studies was conducted using a self administered health survey,45 while in the other study antidepressant adherence was measured by asking patients how many times a day they took their medication in the past month. The results obtained from these investigations45-46 showed that patients who were taking their medication at the six month follow-up exhibited better antidepressant compliance and improved symptoms. However, antidepressant adherence and depression symptoms scores were similar for both the intervention and control group.46 Given the high rates of antidepressant discontinuation during the first three months of treatment, pharmacists have a potentially crucial role in providing medicines information and conducting treatment monitoring for those patients at high risk of non-compliance. Studies need to be conducted to compare outcomes of pharmacist.s treatment monitoring of people commencing antidepressant medication and o ther health professionals monitoring.8 An investigation into the impact of nurses treatment monitoring, also demonstrated improved medication adherence.67 3.2.3 Medication management reviews Pharmacist conducted medication management reviews are crucial in identifying potential medication related problems among people taking medications for mental illness.8 Medication review services provided by pharmacists comprise of comprehensive medication history taking, patient home interviews, medication regimen reviews, and patient education.68 A randomised controlled study of pharmacist conducted domiciliary medication reviews was carried out in the United States. The patients involved in the study were individuals living independently in the community that were identified to be at high risk of medication misadventure. The results showed a significant decline in the in the overall numbers and monthly costs of medication, however, there was no major difference in cognitive or affective functioning between the intervention and control group. The majority of patients were unwilling to follow the pharmacist.s recommendations to discontinue benzodiazepines and narcotic analgesics.47 The great potential of pharmacist conducted medication reviews for people with mental illness may not be limited to optimising the use of mental health medication.8 Physical health care for people with mental illness is generally less than adequate. This is caused by the tendency among health professionals to focus solely on the management of the mental illness among people with both mental and physical illnesses. Pharmacist conducted medication reviews may be a comprehensive strategy to improve medication use for both mental and physical illness.68 3.2.4 Medication management reviews in nursing homes Older people who are cared for in nursing homes are arguably the most vulnerable patient group, and the useful contribution that pharmacists can make to the care of these patients has been documented.30 Older people are particularly sensitive to the effects of medication,69 regular use of psychotropic medication is associated with an increased risk of recurrent falls,70 and also long term usage is linked with tardive dyskinesia.71 Psychotropic medication use may also be connected with an increased rate of cognitive decline in dementia.72 The beneficial effects of psychotropic medication must be balanced against extrapyramidal and other side effects.73 In 1995 it was reported that psychotropic drug use in Australian nursing homes was 59%, although this figure has fallen in recent years.74 In Ireland, 19% of older people in nursing homes were reported to be taking phenothiazines,75 however, this figure is lower now following a tightening of the licensing indications of thiordazine. In the England, a study showed that 30% of residents in nursing homes were taking antipsychotics.76 Two studies have looked at the appropriateness of psychotropic medication prescribing in the United Kingdom. In Scotland antipsychotic medication use in nursing homes is 24%, it was found that 88% of these prescriptions were inappropriate if the United States criteria for use were applied. In England, 54% of prescriptions were found to be inappropriate according to the United States criteria.77 A study conducted in Denmark suggested that behavioural problems were a determinant for the use of antipsychotics and benzodiazepines, irrespective of the psychiatri c diagnosis of the resident.78 A randomised controlled study of pharmacist-led multidisciplinary initiative to optimise prescribing in 15 Swedish nursing homes was carried out. The study involved pharmacists participating in multidisciplinary team meetings with nurses and physicians at regular intervals within a 12 month period. A significant decline in the use of antipsychotics, benzodiazepines and antidepressants by 19%, 37% and 59%, respectively was observed in the intervention facilities.79 A follow-up investigation of the same intervention and control facilities three years later indicated that the intervention facilities maintained a significantly higher quality of drug use, with far fewer residents being prescribed more than three drugs that could lead to confusion, not-recommended hypnotics and combinations of interacting drugs.48 An additional randomised controlled study showed that pharmacist.s medication reviews in residential care facilities demonstrated significant reductions in the number and cost of medications prescribed. 10.2% fewer residents were administered psychoactive medications and 21.3% fewer hypnotic medications. The impact of medication reviews on mortality was also measured and a noteworthy reduction was observed.49 One study indicated that one hour per week of a pharmacist.s time can make a significant contribution to patient care in nursing homes. It was found that this input was well received by nursing staff and prescribers and that general medical practitioners accepted the pharmacist.s advice in 78% of cases.30 Physician.s recognition was 91% in south Manchester, where 55% of interventions resulted in treatment modifications. Community pharmacist.s in Northamptonshire analysed prescriptions of nursing home residents and provided prescribing advice to general medical practitioners. The advice was accepted in 73% of cases and it was estimated that pharmacist involvement could give a 14% reduction in the cost of prescribing.69 A randomised controlled trial in 1 4 nursing homes in England showed that a brief medication review reduced the quantity of medication overall with no detriment to the mental and physical functioning of the patients.58 A reduction in the use of primary and secondary care resources by pharmacist medication review services has also been shown.80 The recommendations provided by pharmacists included stopping and starting medicines, generic substitution, switching to another medicine, dose modification, changes in administration frequency, formulation change and requests for laboratory tests or nurse monitoring.30 Almost 50% of the recommendations were to stop medication and 66% of these were due to the fact that there was no indication for the drug prescribed. This suggested that medication regimes were not reviewed. Conversely, initiation of a new drug made up 8% of recommendations, which implied that indications were present but not always treated76. Pharmacists have an important part to play in multi-disciplinary heal th teams and they must be integrated into any proposed models of care. Nursing home residents are a vulnerable group of patients who deserve the same high-quality clinical care as people of any age living at home.30 3.2.4 Pharmacotherapy interventions to optimise prescribing Pharmacist.s educational visits to general medical practitioners have been shown to modify prescribing behaviour.54 Four studies have evaluated the impact of pharmacists educational visits to general medical practitioners to optimise the prescribing of benzodiazepines and other psychotropic medications prescribed for mental illness,50-53 two of which showed positive results.52-53 A cluster randomised controlled study carried out in the United States found that pharmacists educational visits to general medical practitioners were associated with a significant decline in the prescribing of potentially inappropriate psychotropic medications in intervention facilities.53 An Australian study of educational visits to general medical practitioners, conducted by three physicians and one pharmacist resulted in a noteworthy decline in the prescribing of benzodiazepines.52 In the Netherlands, groups of local pharmacists and general medical practitioners conduct inter-professional meetings to optimise prescribing. These pharmacotherapy meetings are undertaken as part of routine clinical practice. A cluster randomised study of pharmacotherapy meetings to discuss prescribing of antidepressant medications resulted in a 40% reduction in the prescribing of highly anticholinergic antidepressants, compared to a control group of practitioners that did not partake in these meetings39. The possible awareness of prescribing related issues generated by asking general medical practitioners to conduct a self-audit of their prescribing caused this overall reduction.52-53 Additionally, pharmacist.s initiatives to improve prescribing are most effective when both pharmacists and general medical practitioners have an opportunity to build rapport.39 3.2.5 Community mental health centres and outpatients clinics Two studies were carried out to investigate the effect of pharmacist delivered services to community mental health centres and outpatient.s clinics.56-57 In a controlled trial, pharmacists managed patient cases in a community mental health centre in the United States. Significantly better personal adjustment scores were observed from patients receiving case management from a pharmacist in comparison to those receiving it from a nurse, social worker or psychologist.56The patients also rated themselves as healthier and were considerably less likely to seek help from other health care providers. The medication service provided allowed the pharmacist to adjust medication doses and dose timing, and prescribe or discontinue medications under supervision. The cost effectiveness of incorporating a pharmacist as part of the health care team was also measured. It was estimated that a 60% cost reduction can be achieved when medication monitoring is conducted by a pharmacists instead of a clinic psychiatrist. The pharmacist also performed more medication monitoring of patients per month than the clinic psychiatrist and had more contact with each individual patient .56 In Malaysia, a study of patients discharged from hospital after admission for relapse of schizophrenia, who were identified as having poor medication adherence were allocated to receive pharmacist medication counselling or standard care.57 The importance of compliance to medication was also reinforced by the patient.s psychiatrists at follow up visits. At the 12 month follow-up, patients receiving counselling from a pharmacist and who were exposed to daily or twice daily medication treatments, had significantly fewer relapses that required hospitalisation than patients receiving standard care.57 3.2.6 Integrated mental health services The needs of people with recurrent, severe mental illness fluctuate over time and services must be coordinated, and be able to anticipate, prevent and respond to crisis. Integrated mental health services across primary and specialist services should promote early interaction and allow the provision of continuous care to meet patients needs.58 Prescribed medication is an important component in the successful management of mental illness. Accurate information should be transferred seamlessly between primary and secondary sectors to ensure the optimum care of these patients.59 The simple delivery of information to community pharmacists regarding drugs prescribed at discharge enables comparison with general medical practitioners prescriptions and any discrepancies can be followed up and resolved.82 Discrepancies that may occur can be described as any changes observed between supplies of prescribed drugs, including a wide spectrum of observed events.83 These can range from simple changes between supplies of prescribed drugs to more complex errors that might result in adverse reactions.60 This information transfer enables a cost-effective reduction in all unintentional discrepancies, including those judged to have significant adverse effects on patient care.58 An investigation that evaluated the impact of providing mental health patients with a pharmacist generated medication care plan at the time of discharge found that patients with care plans were less likely to be readmitted to hospital than those without. Information contained in the care plan included l ists of discharge medications, a summary of the patient education that was provided, and the potential adverse effects that need to be assessed. Community pharmacists who received copies of the care plan were also more likely to identify medication related problems for the discharged mental health patients than those pharmacists who were not provided with copies of the care plan, however, the results from this study are not significantly significant.57Other methods of transferring information such as electronic transfer have the potential to be of value in this patient population.84 People with mental illness have complex needs which are not recognised by organised boundaries.58When discussing discharge and after-care in the community, medication management must be prioritised.85Mentally ill patients are vulnerable and medication is a vital part of their well being. It is therefore essential that an accurate transfer of information between care settings minimises the potentially har mful discrepancies that can occur. Community pharmacist.s interaction in this area could prevent such incidents.58 3.2.7 Community mental health teams Most people with bipolar mood disorders and psychotic illnesses in the United Kingdom and Australia are managed by interdisciplinary community mental health teams (CMHTs).86 The potential benefits of greater involvement by pharmacists in CMHTs have been documented and debated for over 30 years.87-90 The majority of clinical team meetings conducted by CMHTs do not involve a pharmacist. A review of CMHTs in New South Wales found that just 1 in 5 had a designated pharmacist.91 Pharmaceutical care programs provided by phar

Free Essays on Picture of Dorian Gray: Dorian as Faust :: Picture Dorian Gray Essays

Dorian as Faust in The Picture of Dorian Gray The Picture of Dorian Gray is a rich story which can be viewed through many literary and cultural lenses. Oscar Wilde himself purposefully filled his novel with a great many direct and indirect allusions to the literary culture of his times, so it seems appropriate to look back at his story - both the novel and the 1945 film version - in this way. In many ways, The Picture of Dorian Gray is a retelling of the Faust story. A temptation is placed before Dorian, as with Faust, and he falls for it--offering up his soul to get it. In fact, one of Faust's principal wishes is also to remain young. Faust and Dorian also each seduce a young woman, then lead her to her death, as well as leading the woman's brother (Valentine in Faust and James Vale in Dorian Gray to die in attempting revenge for his sister. It is also a Doppelganger story, like Adelbert Chamisso's "Peter Schlemihl" (in which Peter foolishly sells his shadow) and even more like Edgar A. Poe's "William Wilson" (in which the narrator is tormented by a schoolchum who looks and sounds exactly like him, and which ends much like Dorian Gray, with its more sinister overtones. Dorian Gray has a theme of eternal youth, bought at the price of one's soul, and continued through the destruction of others, in common with vampires as well. And, of course, Dorian Gray has to be run in the mind's eye against the backdrop of Oscar Wilde's life, particularly his affair with the young aristocrat, Lord Alfred Douglas, which eventually landed Wilde in jail for sodomy, and pretty much ended his career. Along these lines, the life of Oscar Wilde and his novel, Dorian Gray can also be compared to that of rock star Freddy Mercury of Queen and their song, "Bohemian Rhapsody." Here we have Oscar Wilde, fun-loving, witty, cynical, decadent kind of guy, undone by his homosexual liaison with Lord Alfred Douglas, languishing in jail for sodomy. A few years previous to this sad turn of events, he writes The Picture of Dorian Gray--about a decadent, immoral murderer, who also has homosexual relations (with various young men who die, become drug addicts, commit suicide, etc.), and who dies a horrible and disfiguring death due to his evil ways. Now, we also have Freddy Mercury, who lived a flamboyant and decadent lifestyle as a sexually ambiguous rock star.

Malacca Essay

The Tourism Society of England was define the Tourism as that is is a temporary, short-term movement of people to destination outside the places which they work and do their activities during their stay at each destination, it includes movement for all purposes. Tourism is a major income of Malaysia, so every year, the government will organize a strategy for the particular destination, and there have some them of project for the promoting the destination like â€Å"Cuti-Cuti Malaysia†. In Malaysia, the Ministry of Tourism is put a lot of effort to do the developing for all the destinations and the government also allocate a big sum budget to supporting the development of tourism. The attraction of Malaysia’s tourism is the culture and its mystery natural places due to it have a lot of natural rain forest and it is a multiracial society. (Please refer to Appendix A) Malacca is a historical city and it is worth to the tourist for visiting its interesting history and architecture. In Malaysia, Malacca is the only one historical state which listed on UNESCO (United National Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization) since 7th July 2008. Malacca is located at southern region of Malay Peninsula; it is the third smallest state in Malaysia, after Perlis and Penang. It is the most mystery history from all states of Malaysia. It is consider convenient to go Kuala Lumpur or Johor Bahru due to iti is located middle between them, it is just taking around one and half hour to reach them. Malacca can be separated into three parts – Central Malacca, Alor Gajah, and Jasin. It has a lot of history attraction, such as Fort A Famosa, Christ Church, Jonker Walk, Stadhuys, Portuges Settlement and so on. It also got a lot of activities can let tourist enjoy it like Dark Tour, River Cruise, and Water Sport at A Famosa and Wondeland Theme Park which is just opening since June 2010. It is very convenient to the tourist it visit the place due to almost the attractions are nearby and in one place, like Jonker Walk, Christ Church and the shopping malls (Dataran Phalawan and Mahkota Parade)are in one area, so it is convenient to the tourists. And it also easy to the tourists. And it also easy to tourists to find the hotels for their stays , because a lot of hotels are developed in Malacca, such as Equatorial, Holiday Inn, Bayview, Emperor Hotel and so on. The most famous thing of Malacca is its Baba Nyonya culture and foods, a lot of tourist come and visit Malacca because of its traditional Baba Nyonya food. It is not only attracting the foreign tourist, and it also attracts the local tourists who are come from different states.

Free Essays on A Whole, New, Quantum World

From the origin of the universe to laser eye surgery, quantum physics has appeared in almost every facet of life since its birth. It has given new explanations and perspectives on many already accepted fields. These fields include biology, chemistry, ecology, and religion. Quantum physics has also created new fields which use its principle to seek explanations. An example of such a field is quantum cosmology, which seeks an answer for the origin of the universe and the nature of celestial bodies. Different applications of quantum physics have also appeared in a multitude of fields. Some of these fields include medicine and power sources. Also, some fields have been created for the application of the principles of quantum physics. These new fields include nanotechnology, quantum computing, and quantum game theory. The unique (and sometimes bizarre) principles of quantum physics have also changed people’s method of thinking. This new way of thinking has even affected the arts. T he principles of quantum physics have changed almost every field of thought as well the people who study it. Some principles of quantum physics which have had a substantial effect on the world include Bell’s theorem, the Copenhagen interpretation, and superposition. Bell’s theorem says reality must be non-local. Non-locality means that the observed activities of a particle are affected by a multitude of outside factors. This idea allows one to view each thing as being connected with everything else in the world. The Copenhagen interpretation is another principle which has had far reaching effects. Nick Herbert describes this interpretation when he says, â€Å"The Copenhagen interpretation holds that in a certain sense the unmeasured atom is not real: its attributes are created or realized in the act of measurement† (xiii). This interpretation means that an object does not have its attributes until they are observed by something else. One other influential prin.. . Free Essays on A Whole, New, Quantum World Free Essays on A Whole, New, Quantum World From the origin of the universe to laser eye surgery, quantum physics has appeared in almost every facet of life since its birth. It has given new explanations and perspectives on many already accepted fields. These fields include biology, chemistry, ecology, and religion. Quantum physics has also created new fields which use its principle to seek explanations. An example of such a field is quantum cosmology, which seeks an answer for the origin of the universe and the nature of celestial bodies. Different applications of quantum physics have also appeared in a multitude of fields. Some of these fields include medicine and power sources. Also, some fields have been created for the application of the principles of quantum physics. These new fields include nanotechnology, quantum computing, and quantum game theory. The unique (and sometimes bizarre) principles of quantum physics have also changed people’s method of thinking. This new way of thinking has even affected the arts. T he principles of quantum physics have changed almost every field of thought as well the people who study it. Some principles of quantum physics which have had a substantial effect on the world include Bell’s theorem, the Copenhagen interpretation, and superposition. Bell’s theorem says reality must be non-local. Non-locality means that the observed activities of a particle are affected by a multitude of outside factors. This idea allows one to view each thing as being connected with everything else in the world. The Copenhagen interpretation is another principle which has had far reaching effects. Nick Herbert describes this interpretation when he says, â€Å"The Copenhagen interpretation holds that in a certain sense the unmeasured atom is not real: its attributes are created or realized in the act of measurement† (xiii). This interpretation means that an object does not have its attributes until they are observed by something else. One other influential prin.. .

How to Write a Philosophy of Science Essay

How to Write a Philosophy of Science Essay Philosophy of Science Starting your essay How to create an outline Outline sample How to write a thesis for an philosophy of science essay How to write your introductionn How to construct body paragraphs Finishing your essay Revising your essay A philosophy of science essay sample Writing an essay on the philosophy of science is not hard as it may seem. Just like any other essay, you just have to follow the basic format and arrangement of ideas to be able to provide the message you want the readers to know. It needs to have the common features of an essay – introduction, body, and conclusion. The difference will only be in the content and how you are going to correlate all the ideas and thoughts into one single masterpiece. So, to help you in writing a perfect essay, here are some provided guidelines on how to start and finish the best paper about philosophy of science: Starting your essay Before a writer can properly start writing their essay, they will have to make an outline and a thesis statement first. The best way to efficiently create a paper regarding this topic, or any other topic for that matter, is to lay down first all the topics that he would want to discuss and combine them in one simple yet detailed sentence. How to create an outline In writing an outline, one just has to list down every possible issue that he may think of that is related to the specific philosophy of science he/she is writing about. So for example, the philosophy of science topic is about the battle between religion and science, and the author can provide information on both separately, and then include some mixed ideas such as comparing and contrasting both the subject matter to each other. Here is an example of an outline for this specific topic: Outline sample I. Introduction Common misconceptions about religion and science. Why religion and science should not be confused with each other. II. Body Definition and explanation of religion Definition and explanation of science Difference and similarities between science and religion What most scholars and philosophers say about the misconceptions on religion and science III. Conclusion Summary points on why religion and science should not be intertwined What people need to know about religion and science as individual and combined entities How to write a thesis for an philosophy of science essay After creating the outline, the writer may now write their thesis statement. For some people, however, it is easier for them to write the thesis statement first and then break it down into parts and come up with an outline. Whichever way the writer may choose, these guidelines still can be helpful in making the thesis statement: If one chooses to make the thesis statement first before the outline, he/she must try to be very particular on the issue that he wants to talk about. After that, he can now break it down into parts so he can make an outline. If one chooses otherwise, she just has to combine all the ideas in the outline and select the most important one and make it his thesis statement. Usually, the things that a writer would like to emphasize and the topic which is related to almost every thought in the essay is the most important one. A writer should not make long thesis statements. A one-liner sentence would suffice, but it should be detailed and specific. She/he shall make it comprehensive and understandable enough to make the readers realize his stand. How to write your introduction After having written the thesis statement and the outline, the writer may now start to write his introduction. It must be noted that introductions are really important because it is the first thing that is read in an essay. Therefore, it is in the introduction where the reader shall decide whether he will continue reading the paper or not. In making the introduction, here are some tips that might help: One must create a catchy and captivating introduction. Some writers use quotes from great philosophers and some use their own quotes to make their point. One must keep in mind that the introduction must already make his viewpoints obvious. Introduction should not be written in long sentences. It is the body’s duty to explain the writer’s opinion and thoughts. The introduction will only provide the things that are to be learned by the readers in the succeeding pages. The introduction should be related to the body of the paragraph itself. No reader would like to be confused on what she is reading. Having different thoughts on the introduction and the body will surely make the reader lose his interest to continue reading. Thus, there must be a connection between the introduction and the body. How to construct body paragraphs For most writers, writing the body is easier than actually writing the introduction and the conclusion. The reason is that because in the body, they just actually need to provide all the information that they want their readers to know. However, such is not the case for all people. So here are some strategies that might help in writing the body paragraphs: Align the paragraphs based on the thesis statement and the outline. After all, the latter was made beforehand as guidelines for the writer to be able to write his/her essay easily and smoothly. Unnecessary information is immaterial, so it should be kept simple but still informative. One should practice excluding facts which are not really relative and significant to the main point of the paper. Avoid using complex and obscure languages. The essay aims to provide information. Therefore, the usage of words should be kept simple and understandable. The paragraphs should be interconnected with each other. If not, then the readers would be confused on what the writer is trying to point out. The preceding paragraph should have a relation to the next one, strengthening the main point of the author. Do not make it boring. A philosophy of science essay is usually an informative one. Hence, there would be a lot of uninteresting facts and data. And to engage the readers, the paper should be written in an exciting and fun way. Finishing your essay While the introduction and the body should already have explained the main point, the conclusion must still show the strength of the argument. There must be a reiteration of the points, if needed, to toughen the opinions of the writer. To be able to do this, here are some tips that may be followed: Conclude your paper by making a brief summary of all the points and thoughts made throughout the essay. It does not have to be long. Just like the thesis statement, it should be concise and comprehensive. The writer should use his/her own words to strengthen his argument. The conclusion should provide a great impact on the readers. Whether the essay is an informative, an argumentative, or a persuasive one, the conclusion needs to be conclusive and certain. Make the readers realize what they should know. It is not enough to just provide a summary and a strong argument. One must convince his readers that his point is material and substantial in relation to the topic he chose to explain. Revising your essay It is not enough, of course, to pass or publish the paper once the writer finishes writing. It should be reviewed and proofread so the best out of it will come out. Here are some tips on how to revise a philosophical essay on science: Do not reread and edit immediately after writing. The best time for revisions is the day after. One shall need to have a clear and refreshed mind before he can actually see the mistakes that he has committed to writing the essay. Avoid being biased. It is actually best to have another person revise it, however, if there is no one available, the writer may do the revision on his own. Since it is his own work, he should be able to edit and revise it without being biased. A one-time revision is not enough. One must try reviewing and rereading it a lot of times before she may be able to come up with a well-written essay. You see, writing an essay about any philosophy of science is not difficult. It is just the same as writing a simple essay talking about other topics. All you have to do is believe that you can produce one. You may follow the guidelines stated above. Writing does not have to be hard. You just have to believe that you can. A philosophy of science essay sample Science comprises of natural and physical sciences. Sciences include biology, physics, chemistry, space science and earth science. The basic of sciences is making hypothesis which can be true or falls. From the hypothesis, scientific methods can be used to verify the hypothesis. In verifying the hypothesis, some assumptions can be made to validate the results; this assumption is mostly theoretical. For a long time scientific results, methods, assumptions, and hypothesis have not been verified as true or falls. To determine the truth in science, philosophy of science was introduced. Philosophy of science was introduced by philosophers to try and understand the actions of the scientists and the scientific theories. The philosophers were trying to link scientific evidence with what people could observe in nature; that is, the philosophers wanted to verify to the public the truth in scientific work. The philosophers were interested in elaborating the methods scientists use in their work. The philosophers also wanted to verify the truth in scientific theories. Also, philosophy of science is concerned with how science affects activities of nonscientists and nonscientific institutions. Philosophy of science is important in explaining what science cannot explain. Philosophy explains the basics of science to help people understand science better. For example, in mathematics, mathematicians use numbers on their daily basis, and no mathematician has ever dared to explain the meaning of numbers. Lack of knowing the definition of numbers can make ordinary people take mathematics as a tough course. Therefore, it’s the work of the philosophers to explain the meaning of numbers. In other circumstances, physicist use time in their working but they cannot explain what time is; this is also left for philosophers to explain. Philosophy of science, therefore, makes scientists and the general public understand some basics in science that cannot be answered by science facts alone. Philosophy of science is essential in the field of medicine. In the past, before the introduction of the philosophy of science, the medics believed that people were only sick at the point of visiting health facilities. The medics did not take medical history into perspective while dealing with their clients. Also, the medics did not have governing ethics in dealing with their clients. The introduction of the philosophy of science in medicine has so far changed how the medics operate. Philosophy makes medicine personnel understand the cause of a disease and the medical history of the clients. Philosophy has made it possible for medical personnel to view patients as humans and not ‘sick organs’; this has made it possible for the introduction of medical ethics. Through philosophy, medics can now predict and understand the cause of diseases. Philosophy of science is also crucial in explaining the origin of the world. For example, science can only explain what happened during the big bang and post big bang events but cannot explain what took place before the initialization of big bang. The fact that science cannot explain some events makes people lack understanding of their world. With the introduction of philosophy, it is now possible for scientists to explain what happened before the big bang. Also, other things like the origin of man can be explained easily because of philosophy. In conclusion, philosophy of science is essential in understanding our world. Philosophy addresses the questions of what, how and why in the science field.